In this blog post, we will examine the intellectual trends that sought to harmonize the innovative changes in Western astronomy in the 16th century with traditional Chinese thought.
In the early 16th century, the heliocentric theory was proposed in the West as an alternative to the geocentric theory. The reforms in astronomy that began at this point went beyond mere scientific changes and led to a transformation that overturned metaphysics through the spread of empiricism and the development of mathematical science. As Western cosmology spread, various responses to Western science appeared in the East, particularly in China. Chinese scholars did not simply accept Western cosmology, but actively attempted to combine it with their own traditional ideas. In the process, interest in their own intellectual heritage intensified, and efforts were made to acknowledge the superiority of Western science while reaffirming the excellence of Chinese traditions. Copernicus, who inherited the mathematical tradition of simplifying complex problems, sought to find a way to describe the motion of celestial bodies in a simple manner. He attempted to create a simple model that would make complex astronomical calculations more intuitive.
However, he did not pay much attention to the metaphysical problems that could arise in the process. Ancient Aristotle and Ptolemy explained that the Earth was fixed at the center of the universe and that the moon, sun, and other planets revolved around it. The stars attached to the celestial sphere were believed to simply rotate in the background. However, Nicolaus Copernicus proposed a different model, placing the sun at the center of the universe and the planets, including Earth, revolving around it. According to his theory, the farther a planet is from the sun, the longer its orbital period, and this simple principle could explain complex celestial movements. This model could explain the visible movements of the planets using far fewer circles than Ptolemy’s, and this simplicity was recognized as a virtue in academic circles at the time. However, many intellectuals and religious leaders who adhered to Aristotle’s metaphysics found it difficult to accept his theory. They viewed Nicolaus Copernicus’s theory as demoting humans, who were believed to be created in the image of God, from the center of the universe to mere inhabitants of a small planet.
In the late 16th century, Tycho Brahe acknowledged the astronomical merits of Nicolaus Copernicus’ theory while attempting to avoid conflict with Aristotle’s metaphysics. He proposed a model in which the Earth was at the center of the universe, with the moon, sun, and stars revolving around the Earth, and the planets outside the Earth revolving around the sun. This compromise can be seen as an attempt to accept Nicolaus Copernicus’s innovative ideas while maintaining traditional metaphysical perspectives. However, Johannes Kepler was captivated by Neoplatonism, a metaphysics that believed in the numerical order of the universe, and accepted Nicolaus Copernicus’s astronomy, which placed the sun at the center of the universe in pursuit of simplicity. As an empiricist, he utilized the precise astronomical observations of Tycho Brahe to establish the laws governing the motion of planets orbiting the sun. These laws provided a new proof of the simplicity of the universe and made it increasingly difficult to maintain Aristotle’s metaphysical perspective.
In the late 17th century, Isaac Newton successfully justified the heliocentric theory mechanically. He successfully deduced Johannes Kepler’s laws of planetary motion from the universal gravitation hypothesis. According to Isaac Newton’s theory, universal gravitation is the force that attracts two masses, and its magnitude is proportional to the product of the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. For example, if we assume that celestial bodies, including the Earth, are homogeneous in density or spherical in shape, the universal gravitation force exerted by a celestial body on an external mass point can be explained by all the volume elements that make up the celestial body. Additionally, we can prove that the universal gravitation force between the Sun, which is much larger than the Earth, and the Earth is the same. Isaac Newton applied this principle to prove the existence of universal gravitation through actual measurements of the moon’s orbital path and the motion of falling apples. Through this, Isaac Newton explained the order and motion of the universe with mathematical principles and was recognized as the culminator of the scientific revolution.
Western science began to be introduced into China in earnest at the end of the 16th century. When the Qing Dynasty officially adopted the Chongzhen calendar in 1644, which incorporated Western astronomical models and calculation methods to improve the calendar system, the status of Western science was solidified in China. The Chongzhen calendar, which successively adopted the astronomical theories of Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler to enhance accuracy, became closely integrated into the daily lives of the Chinese people. However, Chinese intellectuals viewed Western science, despite its efficiency, as an unsettling element if it was not appropriately integrated with China’s intellectual heritage. Against this backdrop, scholars fascinated by Western science embarked on various attempts to solve problems by appropriately combining Western science with Chinese tradition.
In the 17th century, prominent scholars such as Xiong Mingyu and Fang Yizhi maintained a critical attitude toward the cosmology recorded in ancient Chinese literature, but presented original theories that reinterpreted Western science based on Neo-Confucianism. They respected the achievements of Western science, but rather than simply accepting them, they sought ways to harmonize them with traditional Chinese thought. For example, their assertion that Mercury and Venus revolve around the sun was influenced by Tycho Brahe, but they also questioned Western astronomical theories regarding the size of the sun. Additionally, they proposed an original optical theory linking qi and light, striving to integrate traditional Chinese natural philosophy with Western science.
By the late 17th century, Mei Wending and Wang Xichuan, influenced by Western science, sought to understand the principles of the universe through empirical reasoning and mathematical calculations. While acknowledging the excellence of Western science, they argued that its core principles were already inherent in Chinese classical texts. They dedicated themselves to reinterpreting ancient texts to support the theory that Western science originated in China. ‘梅文鼎’ connected the Western theory that the earth is round with ancient texts, emphasizing the superiority of Chinese science. Through this, Chinese scholars influenced by Western science continued their efforts to interpret and develop Western science within the context of China’s intellectual tradition, rather than simply accepting it.
Mei Wending’s position, which sought to harmonize Western astronomy with Chinese astronomy, was adopted as the official position of China in the early 18th century. This position was reflected in the Siku Quanshu, an encyclopedia that compiled the intellectual achievements of China throughout its history. The editors of this encyclopedia compiled numerous astronomical texts from ancient times to the present, reinterpreting the cosmology contained in ancient texts and attempting to connect it with modern science. This trend continued until the mid-19th century, and through the dissemination and acceptance of Western science, a new intellectual movement emerged that combined Western science with China’s intellectual tradition.
